Reddit Single Parent Household Statistics 2018

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The importance of fathers' involvement in child care is twofold. For instance, children with involved fathers are exposed to more varied stimuli, resulting from interacting with two parents with different values, behaviors, vocabulary, and parenting styles, and this can lead to better cognitive outcomes for the child Lamb, Recent studies have focused on the time allotments made by mothers e.

The findings are mixed. Although some authors find that maternal time is an important determinant of children's cognitive functioning Del Bono et al. Activity content matters, and parent—child time spent in educational activities is comparatively more productive than parent—child time spent in other activities Hsin, However, this literature has largely neglected how the time children spend with their fathers as opposed to their mothers or any parent influences child outcomes.

This study fills this gap in knowledge by considering father—child time in its own right. We contribute to the literature on father's involvement in childrearing and the incipient literature on parental time investments and child outcomes in two main ways. This contrasts with previous research relying on coarse proxy measures for parental time investments, such as employment hours Bernal,or considering certain types of time in isolation, such as educational or recreational time Del Bono et al.

Second, we consider effect heterogeneity by paternal education Lareau, This time expenditure gap is widening over time Altintas, ; Putnam, Cognitive skills are core skills that relate to individual reddit single parent household statistics 2018 and problem solving and encompass aspects such as attention, memory, reasoning, and thinking.

These crucial skills enable individuals to process sensory information e. Hence, such skills are socially reproduced, transmitted from generation to generation, and highly dependent on the socioeconomic context in which childhood takes place.

In the following sections, we draw on principles from reddit single parent household statistics 2018 psychology, economics, and social stratification research and previous empirical evidence to develop testable hypotheses about how father—child time contributes to shaping children's cognitive outcomes. Although father and child may undertake activities that also involve the child's mother, here we focus on the time that fathers spend with their children without maternal involvement.

During that time, it is safe reddit single parent household statistics 2018 assume that the sole or chief responsibility for the child rests on the father. Importantly, we are interested in the effect of paternal time in its own right, as it remains unclear whether and how this type of time is related to children's cognitive outcomes.

This separates our study from previous research focusing on mother—child time see, e. We consider the following two separate components of father—child time: a the quantity of time that fathers spend with their children and b the content of the joint activities undertaken during that time.

To our knowledge, no previous study has provided an encompassing empirical account of how the amount of time that fathers spend engaging with their children affects child development. Different theoretical perspectives suggest plausible mechanisms that link the amount of father—child time with children's cognitive development.

First, spending time with the father may benefit the child by exposing him or her to two involved parental figures instead of just one. Hence, to the extent that mother and father are different in their behaviors and personalities, father's involvement may result in greater heterogeneity in the stimuli to which the child is exposed Amato, ; Lamb, Fathers' language skills are more predictive of children's vocabulary than mothers' and have been argued to afford children extra capabilities in talking to strangers and in public settings Rowe et al.

This is because, as argued in social learning theory, skills are acquired by observation Bandura, These interactions should promote child development in both cognitive and noncognitive skills, and these are known to be mutually reinforcing—skills beget skills Heckman, Second, regardless of whether fathers exert different parenting to mothers, the time fathers spend with their children may be a substitute for time spent with other guardians. For example, when fathers do not spend time with their children, relatives e.

The activities and interactions that the child undertakes with these other agents may be less conducive to cognitive development than those initiated by fathers Belsky et al. This could occur if the alternative guardians are less educated or less knowledgeable about parenting practices than that child's father which may be the case for grandparents or have less knowledge about the child's abilities and dispositions which may be the case for external carers.

It is also possible that paternal time acts as a substitute for time alone. Third, fathers' involvement in child care improves certain aspects of family life, which may in turn have downstream positive effects on the child Lamb, ; Pleck, Critically, paternal involvement in child care is a contributing factor to maternal employment, and this is associated with better child cognitive development see, e.

In contrast, low paternal involvement in child care can exacerbate maternal stress and mental strain and result in suboptimal parenting practices amongst mothers through parenting stress Kalil et al. Therefore, greater paternal involvement in child care should indirectly enhance the quality of mother—child relationships and, through that channel, the child's cognitive development Lamb, In these circumstances, parents may behave in richer ways toward each other and the child, creating a safe and warm environment that is conducive to children's learning and improved cognitive functioning Lamb, Based on these postulations, we expect the following: Hypothesis 1—More father—child time should be related to better child cognitive outcomes.

As noted, empirical literature in this area is limited. In these studies, the general finding is that fathers' time availability enhances children's cognitive development, particularly among children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Closest to our research are Hofferth and Milkie et al. Both of these found no reddit single parent household statistics 2018 between father—child time measured as hours per week of time accessible to and engaged with the child and children's academic and behavioral outcomes. Our study expands their scope by considering the content of the father—child shared activities, effect differences by parental education, and longitudinal estimation. There is growing recognition that activity content is important when considering the effects of parent—child time on children.

Exposure to different types of activities has different consequences for the child's cognitive development Hsin, Activities such as reading, playing games, doing homework, and participating in social events are argued to be associated with positive child outcomes. That is, these activities are more stimulating for the child if shared with the father or motherwhich should have positive consequences on the child's cognitive development. In contrast, when the child and the father or mother spend their joint time in other activities, such reddit single parent household statistics 2018 unstructured activities reddit single parent household statistics 2018.

For example, father and child may talk less and in a less engaged way when watching television compared to when playing a board game. These studies typically split parent—child time into two or three categories according to the type of activity. The most common categories are educational time i.

The hierarchy across other activities is less clear. Although there is no available evidence on how activity type shapes the relationships between father—child time and child outcomes, we expect the associations to be similar to those for mother—child reddit single parent household statistics 2018 or parent—child time.

Different bodies of work lead to the prediction that parental education should moderate the effect of father—child time on children's cognitive outcomes. Second, there is evidence of heterogeneity by parental education in the content of the activities that fathers and children share when they spend time together.

In particular, highly educated parents engage more in activities that stimulate children's cognitive functioning, such as educational play Altintas, ; Kalil et al. In addition, highly educated parents are comparatively better in tailoring shared activities to their children's age and developmental stage Kalil et al.

Collectively, these arguments suggest that father—child time should have a stronger positive effect on child outcomes when fathers have high levels of education. Highly educated fathers can use their sociocultural capital to acquire, develop, and exert cognitively stimulating parenting practices that enhance children's cognitive development. For example, children of more educated fathers will be exposed to broader, more complex, and more sophisticated vocabulary and knowledge inputs from their parents during both highly productive shared activities e.

Altogether, we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 3—Fathers' total time with children as well as time on each activity type will show a stronger positive association with children's cognitive outcomes when parents are highly educated. We use data from LSAC. For further details on the study's methodology, see Australian Institute of Family Studies LSAC is one of only two longitudinal studies in the world with the U. This was done for 2 days allocated at random, a weekend day and a weekday Mullan, We restrict our analyses to children in the older LSAC cohort and to study Waves 12and 3when these children were aged 4, 6, and 8 years, respectively.

We reddit single parent household statistics 2018 on this subsample for both theoretical and pragmatic reasons.

In the latter waves, diaries were no longer filled by parents but by study children themselves, and there were substantial changes in the coding of the activities.

In addition, our measure of cognitive ability was only collected in LSAC Waves 1 to 3 for the selected cohort. We restrict our analyses to children living with both biological parents.

Our final analytical sample comprises 6, observations from 3, children. In this sample, To derive our measure of total father—child time we first sum up each of the blocks in which the child was reportedly spending time with the father, except for those in which the mother was also present.

Following previous studies see, e.

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Hence, our measure of total father—child time is an estimate of the total number of hours per week that the father spends as the main carer of the child. Similar measures were created for time with the mother alone, mother and father together, and neither father nor mother.

Similar to Hsin and Felfe and Fiorini and Keanewe recoded these activities into the following eight categories: a educational, b routine, c unstructured, d social, e school or kindergarten, f structured, g sleep, and h unknown. Then, for each of the three time categories of key analytic interest educational, structured, and unstructured time reddit single parent household statistics 2018, we derived variables capturing the amount of time the child spent on that category with a the father alone, b the mother alone, c the mother and the father together, and d neither father nor mother.

Again, we allocated missing data to the residual activity category unknown, with some exceptions. Following Fiorini and Keane, we recoded missing data for activities occurring between p.

In Wave 1, we recoded missing data for activities between a. In Waves 2 and 3 ages 6—8when school is mandatory, we recoded all time between a.

This is because most Australian children of those ages attend school or formal child care and missing data were comparatively more prevalent during those times Baxter, For example, if a parent reported that the child was both doing homework and listening to music, we would allocate 7. After these adjustments, our time categories add up to hours or the total number of hours in a week.

Its implementation involves an examiner presenting the child with four images together with a word that describes one of these images. The examiner then asks the child to identify the appropriate image. The complexity of the words and images varies by child's age to match the test's difficulty with developmental stages.

PPVT scores range from 0 towhere higher scores denote higher cognitive ability. Across all children and study waves in our sample, the PPVT has a mean of In our multivariate models we adjust for a set of control variables commonly used in studies of children's cognitive development.

In addition, all models control for a set of dummy variables denoting whether both the weekday and weekend time diaries were completed on ordinary days and whether it was the mother vs. Table 1 shows means and standard deviations for all control variables. In our main analyses, we examine the relationships between paternal time investments and children's cognitive functioning using the following two estimation techniques: a ordinary least squares OLS models similar to those used in previous studies see, e.

The standard errors are adjusted for the clustering of observations within children. We run OLS models with basic covariates child's age and gender, diary characteristics to establish basic associations, and more conservative models with extended covariates adding also information on birthweight, Indigeneity, siblings, language spoken at home, parental education and work hours, and family income.

When considering different activity types, weekly father—child time was 0. These figures were again much lower than those for mother—child time—2. When fathers spend time with their children, the mother is typically also present. Table 2 shows the results from a first set of regression models examining the associations between total father—child time and children's PPTV scores. Here, we excluded the variable capturing time with neither father nor mother.

These results are consistent with our first hypothesis. However, the magnitude of the estimated associations was very small: 5 additional weekly hours of father—child time increased PPVT scores by about 1. This pattern of weak results is nevertheless consistent with recent U. In a second set of models Table 3we examined the associations between children's PPVT scores and time spent between children and parents on different types of activities.

Here, following Fiorini and Keanewe left out sleep time as the reference category. Consistent with Hypothesis 2, our results yielded evidence of productivity hierarchies in father—child time by activity type.

To test the robustness of the associations reported thus far, we replicated the models presented before using alternative estimators Table 4. First, we reestimated the associations of interest using fixed effects models. The pattern of results in all of these models was similar to that in the models discussed previously. Total time with father was reddit single parent household statistics 2018 and significantly associated with higher PPVT scores top panelwith father—child time in educational activities being particularly productive bottom panel.

As an exception, the coefficient on total father—child time was not statistically significant in the fixed effects model. We also tested the robustness of the results to different methodological choices see Table S2 in the Supplementary Online Materials. The estimates on total father—child time were similar in magnitude to those reported in the main models, but failed to reach statistical significance.

The coefficients on father—child time in different types of activities were also similar, with the estimate on educational time being large and statistically significant across specifications. Third, we considered quadratic specifications of the father—child time variables to capture potential nonlinear associations.

The results revealed little evidence of the latter—as denoted by mostly statistically insignificant parameters on the square terms. The results from these models were again consistent with those presented earlier. The results from a fifth sensitivity analysis are discussed below. In a final set of models, we examined whether the estimated associations between children's PPVT scores and father—child time in general and across activity types differed by paternal education Table 5.

This differentiated between degree or higher qualifications The results, shown in Table S3 in the Online Appendix, were similar to those presented here. We also reestimated the models splitting the sample by reddit single parent household statistics 2018 dichotomous indicator of paternal degree education, which is statistically equivalent to interacting paternal degree education with all predictors.

Altogether, results from these robustness checks were consistent with those in the main models, providing no evidence that paternal education moderates the relationships between father—child time overall or educational and children's PPVT scores in reddit single parent household statistics 2018 Australian sample. In doing so, we contributed to both the literature on the role of fathers in child development Cabrera et al. Our results lead to three conclusions regarding the associations between father—child time and children's cognitive functioning, which we discuss in turn.

First, our analyses provided some evidence that higher amounts of father—child time overall are associated with higher levels of cognitive development in their children, consistent with Hypothesis 1.

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However, the magnitude of association was rather small. In fixed effects models, the coefficient on total father—child time was not statistically significant. Yet fixed effects models have some limitations in our context. In any case, the small or inexistent associations between total father—child time and child outcomes reported here are consistent with earlier U. For example, Fomby and Musick found very small associations between mother—child time and children's reading scores.

Similarly, Milkie et al. A second conclusion drawn from our analyses is that father—child time is more strongly associated with children's cognitive outcomes when that time is spent in educational activities such as reading or educational playwhich is consistent with Hypothesis 2. Irrespective of the modeling approach used, father—child time spent in educational activities displayed larger positive associations with children's cognitive functioning than father—child time spent in structured activities such as extracurricular activities or sports or unstructured activities such as watching TV or using a computer.

The magnitude of these associations appeared to be moderate to reddit single parent household statistics 2018. The hierarchy of productivity across activity types is highly consistent with findings on maternal involvement in the United States by Hsin and Felfe as well as findings for time spent with either parent in Australia by Fiorini and Keane This result is generally robust to different model specifications and estimation approaches.

Our findings therefore add to theoretical perspectives arguing, and a growing body of evidence demonstrating, that it is not the amount of parent—child time that matters, but the content of the activities undertaken between the parent and the child during their interaction Amato, ; Hsin, ; Lamb, ; Pleck, Sharing cognitively stimulating activities such as reading, playing games, doing homework, or participating in social events with their father leads to more positive outcomes among children than father—child time that is spent somehow else.

Whether it is father—child time expenditure in specific educational activities or a healthy packaging of different father—child educational activities that makes a difference remains an open question to be addressed in further research.

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